In 1327, Michael of Cesena, the Franciscan "Minister General- (the chief administrative officer of the order) came to Avignon, because of an emerging controversy between the Franciscans and the current Pope, John XXII, over the idea of "Apostolic poverty,"" the view that Jesus and the Apostles owned no property at all of their own but, like the mendicant Franciscans, went around begging and living off the generosity of others. The Franciscans held this view, and maintained that their own practices were a special form of "imitation of Christ."" Pope John XXII rejected the doctrine and declared it to be heretical. When Michael and the Pope had a serious confrontation over the matter, he asked Ockham to study the question from the point of view of previous papal statements and John's own previous writings on the subject. When he did so, Ockham came to the conclusion, apparently somewhat to his own surprise, that John's view was not only wrong but outright heretical. Furthermore, the heresy was not just an honest mistake; it was stubbornly heretical, a view John maintained even after he had been shown it was wrong. As a result, Ockham argued, Pope John was not just teaching heresy, but was a heretic himself in the strongest possible sense, and had therefore effectively abdicated his papacy. In short, Pope John XXII was no pope at all! .
In 1328 Ockham completely turned away from "pure" philosophy and theology to polemic. From that year until the end of his life he worked to overthrow what he saw as the tyranny of Pope John XXII (1316-1334) and of his successors Popes Benedict XII (1334-1342) and Clement VI (1342-1352). May 26, 1328, Michael of Cesena, Ockham, and a few other sympathetic Franciscans, fled Avignon and went into exile. They initially went to Italy, where Louis (Ludwig) of Bavaria, the Holy Roman Emperor, was in Pisa at the time, along with his court and retinue. The Holy Roman Emperor was engaged in a political dispute with the Papacy, and Ockham's group found refuge under his protection.
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Descartes starts his Meditations off and thinks that he should doubt all of his senses, because he fears that they have been deceiving him ever since he has had them. He then proceeds to ponder on the true meanings of his own existence and if there was some higher power that led the world into its ...
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