For example, a student is considered at-risk in some of the literature if she lives in poverty or her parents have low education levels (Benard, 1993; Berry, 1992; Doll & Lyon, 1998; Fox, 1994; Rak & Patterson, 1996; Slavin, 1997). Other times the term at-risk refers to internal factors within the student like low self-esteem, an external locus of control, or low educational aspirations (D"Imperio & Dubow, 2000; Hampson, Rahman, Brown, Taylor, Donaldson, 1998; Henderson, 1998; Smith & Carlson, 1997). .
An at-risk student today may be a student at the postsecondary, secondary, elementary, primary, or even preschool level of education. From the at-risk movement came an abundance of programs and services developed at all education levels to aid students in their quest for higher levels of education. Additionally, an abundance of literature began to accumulate on the at-risk student. As the literature grew, the question on many researchers minds was "Why do some at-risk students succeed while other do not?" As a result, the literature evolved from the symptomatic at-risk terminology to center on solution-oriented resiliency. .
A resilient child is "one who loves well, works well, plays well, and expects well" (Werner & Smith, 1992). A resilient student is one who rebounds from the adversities associated with being at-risk to succeed academically (Henderson, 1998; Miller & MacIntosh, 1999). The resiliency research emphasizes the importance of internal and external protective factors available to the student (Benard, 1993, 1995; Brooks, 1994; Christiansen & Christiansen, 1997; D"Imperio & Dubow, 2000; Dirling, 1999; Forehand, Biggar, & Kotchick, 1998; Fox, 1994; Gonzalez & Padilla, 1997; Henderson, 1998; Howard & Dryden, 1999; Howard & Johnson, 2000; Jew, Green, & Kroger, 1999; Krovetz, 1999; Miller, 1999; Miller & MacIntosh, 1999; McMillan & Reed, 1994; Mothner, 1995; Pianta & Walsh, 1998; Rak & Patterson, 1996; Richman, Rosenfeld, & Bowen, 1998; Smith & Carlson, 1997).
