Through standards, government could control the power of private firms such as AOL and Microsoft from monopolizing this new tool. ARPA was responsible for setting the transfer control and file transfer protocols and later Internet Protocol that would be used to integrate satellite, packet radio and the ARPANET (55). This standardization made adding new computers to the network possible, and virtually uncontrolled by a private firm. It also allowed for a low cost of entry reducing barriers to for private users to enter in the industry. This was monitored through bringing together researchers, government officials, and emerging business researchers to maintain consistent standards on the Internet. ARPA again showed its influence by coercively requiring companies to maintain open coding standards, as was the case with BBN when J.C.R. Licklider threatened to hold up funds to BBN if they did not cooperate in publishing its IMP computer routers" computer code. (56) By ensuring all standards are open, it guaranteed that any company or individual, small or large had the opportunity to develop or create Internet related products without having to worry about compatibility issues. Later, government would back its support of the open system with the endorsing of UNIX and making it a government standard for networking needs. With an innovative development like the Internet, it is difficult to find the skilled workers when there was no previous training or expertise available. Government assumed the responsibility to train the early programmers through the Defense Department's SAGE program. Newman points out how the program was crucial in training the first generation of computer programmers before any academic institution had thought of it. Spin off corporations like RAND, Systems Development Corporation (SDC), Xerox Data Systems are examples of how early government trained specialists and programmers staffed subsequent start-ups to venture in their own innovative development.
