An examination of the narrative under each of the steps just listed yields the conclusion that with this model no cultural variables are included in the analysis of a dilemma. The assumption may be that one set of values applies to all cultures, as stated by Pedersen (1997).
Welfel (2002) offered a similar extended, nine-step model of rational ethical decision making. This model serves its purpose as a general model, but for specific dilemmas involving clients from diverse cultures, professionals would have to fill in the gaps or perhaps adapt the model to suit her or his cultural perspectives, because a cultural analysis is not provided.
Virtue Ethics Model .
Advocates for a virtue ethics model, Jordan and Meara (1995) relied on the personal characteristics and wisdom of the professionals making an ethical decision, instead of the ethical principles involved. Proponents of this model claim that it is very difficult to reach an agreement on which principle should prevail over another in a particular situation. Instead, they state that the primary factor in arriving at a decision is the professionals' moral or personal beliefs. Central virtues mentioned under this model include integrity, prudence, discretion, perseverance, courage, benevolence, humility, and hope. This approach has not been formulated into a format with specific steps, and, again, cultural analyses or implications have not been included in this model.
Freeman (2000) defined virtue ethics as addressing "who one is, what one ought to become, and what form of action will bring one from the present to the future" (p. 90). The virtue of self-understanding based on honesty, openness, and willingness to take responsibility for one's life would allow counselors to conclude who they are in terms of character. Self-understanding, symbolization, and imagination would allow counselors to determine who they ought to become in terms of a conceptualization of change.