(Hodnett, 1994) Women, when listening, are inclined to nod, smile and make humming sounds. Men, conversely, only tend to show neutral facial expressions. These differences can lead to miscommunication. Men sometimes misinterpret female nods and smiles as indicative of agreement. Women, conversely, take the lack of facial expression among males to mean that they are not in fact listening. Another important point is the manner in which men and women make eye contact, which tends to serve as a multi-functional factor in communication. (Pearson, 1985, p.247) Women tend to make eye contact more often then men, and are likely to value it more. One possible explanation, as suggested in Gender and Communication, is that women seek a more interpersonal relationship and require greater approval than men do. (Pearson, 1985, p.247).
Other areas where differences between male and female approach to communication become apparent are negotiation and leadership. An article by Alice Stuclmacher and Amy Walters titled Gender Differences in Negotiation Outcome: A Meta-analysis suggests that women exhibit more cooperative behaviour than men, while men use more distributive tactics. (Stuhlmacher and Walters, 1999) It is important to note, however, that while evidence of these differences was found, they were not found to be extensive nor did they have a very significant affect on the outcome of negotiation. On the question of leadership, research suggests that women tend to prefer a more democratic style, while men prefer a more directive style (again, it was found that the similarities between men and women far outweigh the differences). (Robbinson and Langton, 2001, p. 444) A significant point to note is that research has shown that differences between cultures tend to mediate differences between the two genders. (Mortenson, 2002) A study looking at Asian and North American cultures found that men are more individualistic than women, while women are more collectivistic than men.