Utilizing processing speed as a measurement tool to determine changes in age-related abilities is problematic. As adults, processes and cognition build on each other and knowledge is not solely reliant on basic processes as in might be in children (Zelinski & Stewart, 1998). Working memory is affected by aging; as we age our memory decreases. Studies have been done that seem to indicate reduced memory capacity and cognitive slowing (Terry, 2009). Zelinski & Stuart (1998) found that changes in abilities were associated with changes in memory in individuals age 55 and older. They also discovered that being younger and females could be related to greater preservation of certain memory abilities (Zelinski & Stewart 1998).
Gender plays some role in cognitive abilities. At one time it was generally accepted that men performed better on spatial ability tests while women performed better on verbal tests; however it seems that differences in test scores have also changed over the years (Terry, 2009). Women are expected to be better at remembering certain types of information and to perform certain tasks more capably than men. The reverse is also true. This indicates a level of stereotyping that can hamper cognitive performance. For example, men are expected to be more capable of home repairs; why then would a woman attempt such work if she is expected to perform poorly? Gender differences can be attributed to a variety of theories from hormonal to handicapping as a result of stereotypes. There is no clear understanding of how much affect gender has on learning and memory as there are so many other mitigating factors to consider.
Personality can also factor into learning and memory. The definition of personality is an "individual's characteristic mode of thinking, feeling, and acting" (Terry, 2009). One of the biggest contributors to personality and learning is the level of anxiety a student feels when facing exams.