Virtually all modern organizations are bureaucracies; that is, they have the.
classical bureaucratic properties (hierarchy of authority, division of labor, impersonality,.
objective standards, technical competence, rules and regulations) described by Max.
Weber (1947) in his seminal analysis of organizations. In practice, the word bureaucracy.
takes on many connotations, most of them negative. But Weber claims that, "Experience.
tends to universally show that the purely bureaucratic type of administrative organization.
. . is, from a purely technical point of view, capable of attaining the highest degree of.
efficiency."" Yet, contemporary criticisms of bureaucracy are rampant. For example, Scott.
(1998) describes four bureaucratic pathologies "alienation, overconformity,.
unresponsiveness, and relentlessness "each of which is pervasive and has negative.
consequences for participants. Feminists attack bureaucracy and argue that it is.
fundamentally a male invention that rewards masculine virtues and values such as.
competition, power, and hierarchy (Ferguson, 1984; Martin and Knopoff, 1999). And.
school executives criticize state bureaucracies for impeding local control of schools and.
preventing them from delivering educational programs that meet community needs. What.
most of these criticisms have in common is the human frustration and aggravation with.
hierarchy, technical procedures, and unfair and restrictive rules (Hirschhorn, 1997).
While it is true that bureaucracies frustrate participants, that is only half.
the story because research also suggests they can improve worker satisfaction (Michaels,.
Cron, Dubinsky and Joachimsthaler, 1988), increase innovation (Damanpour, 1991;.
Craig, 1995), reduce role conflict (Senatra, 1980), and lessen feelings of alienation.
(Jackson and Schuler, 1985). Indeed, organizational research depicts two conflicting.
views of the human consequences of bureaucracy. The negative side suggests that.